Marketing Strategy Victoria Secret Essay

Victoria’s Secret was started in San Francisco, California, in 1977 by Roy Raymond who was Business alumnus of Tufts University and Stanford Graduate School. He felt embarrassed trying to purchase lingerie for his wife in a department store environment. He opened the first store at Stanford Shopping Center in Palo Alto, and quickly followed it with a mail-order catalog and three other stores. With this store he hoped that it could create a comfortable environment for men, with wood-paneled walls, Victorian details and helpful sales staff. Instead of racks of bras and panties in every size, there were single styles, paired together and mounted on the wall in frames. Men could browse for styles for women and sales staff would help estimate the appropriate size, pulling from inventory in the back rooms. In 1982, after five years of operation, Roy Raymond sold the Victoria’s Secret Company, with its six stores and 42-page catalogue, grossing $6 million per year, to Leslie Wexner, creator of The Limited, for $4 million. The Limited kept the personalized image of Victoria’s Secret intact. Victoria’s Secret was rapidly expanded into the U. S. malls throughout the 1980s. The company was able to vend a widened range of products, such as shoes, evening wear, and perfumes, with its mail catalog issued eight times annually. By the early 1990s, Victoria’s Secret had become the largest American lingerie retailer, topping one billion dollars. However, The Company gained notoriety in the early 1990s after it began to use  supermodels  in its advertising and fashion shows. Throughout the past decade, it has turned down celebrity models and endorsements. Current business At present, Victoria’s Secret is the fastest growing subsidiary of Limited Brands and contributes 42% of corporate profits. More than 1000 Victoria’s Secret retail stores are open in the United States. Products are also available through the catalogue and online business, Victoria’s Secret Direct, with sales of approximately $6000 million in 2010. Victoria’s Secret is known for its annual fashion show, the Victoria’s Secret Fashion Show, and for its catalogs, both of which feature top fashion models. II – Executive summary (NG? C) In 2012, Victoria Secret’s goals are to increase 10% in revenue and 13% in market share. To achieve those, the marketing plan will be divided into 4 quarters with a clear division of labor for each department. Every people in company from management to employees will perform each mission separately in order to helps achieve the best returns.

Boeing Learns

Boeing Learns From 787 Mistakes: Using Technology to Create Supply Chain Success Introduction The Boeing Company is one of the largest Aerospace and Defense enterprises in the world. Presently headquartered in Chicago, Illinois; they have contributed to some of the largest breakthroughs in aviation technology † breakthroughs that greatly enhance the lives of the world's people. Boeing began as a small startup in 1916; but by the Korean War, defense efforts had grown Boeing to one of only 23 companies with $1 Billion in annual revenue.Boeing parlayed this growth into being ne of the premier designers and manufacturers of commercial aircraft. Designs such as the 707, 737, and 747 cemented their role as the leader in the industry until 2003 when Airbus first surpassed Boeing in annual sales and order backlog. (Nolan 2012) CEO Phil Condit saw Airbus making progress well prior to 2003, however. In 1996 Condit determined that the Boeing Company needed to be refocused in order to comp ete with the European conglomerate.Airbus had an advantage in innovation and manufacturing because it used collaboration amongst many suppliers to roduce quality aircraft in the most cost effective way possible. In order to continue in its global leadership position, Condit set Boeing along a path to leverage their core competencies, â€Å"with detailed customer knowledge and focus on operating lean and efficient systems. † This plan would be called the â€Å"2016 Strategy' and it would see Boeing change its relationship with suppliers from third-party contract-based to close, strategic partners. Nolan 2012) In future designs, Boeing would rely on these partners to not only build, but also design subcomponents for aircraft. Boeing knew hat it must have a way of coordinating the design process among all suppliers, which cleared the way for a powerful Enterprise Resource Management (ERP) tool. Boeing selected Exostar's Supply Chain Management Solution to coordinate the design and supply chain for the first project under the 2016 Strategy, the 787. (PRNewswire 2013) The 787 was conceived as a revolutionary design that would be a replacement for the aging 767, cost about the same, but be 2 more tuel efficient.It would accomplish this by utilizing a construction of 50% composite – something never before attempted in the commercial aviation arena. In summary, Boeing was endeavoring to build a brand new clean-sheet aircraft from materials never used, using methods never attempted, and using a supply chain more far reaching than ever experienced by the plane maker. In retrospect, it may be easy to see why the 787 has had so many problems. The problems are so large that Forbes was prompted to publish an article titled, â€Å"What Went Wrong at Boeing. (Denning 2013) Boeing has worked through most of its supply chain woes and has delivered over 60 787s to date. Boeing is now designing a next generation version of its supremely popular 777, the 777-8/9. B oeings desire to reduce costs and production time by relying risk-taking suppliers to design and produce major aircraft components has led to many failures and cost overruns in the 787 program. In order for Boeing to avoid the pitfalls of the 787 program, Boeing must take the lessons of the past in concert with good technology to ensure good management of the new 777 supply chain.Literature Review Boeing's move toward a supply chain that relied on utilizing risk-taking suppliers for the 787 was meant to reduce the design timeframe and shorten the production cycle, owever it actually placed the future competitive ability of Boeing in peril. The present paper specifically focuses on the practice of outsourcing design of the aircraft to the aforementioned suppliers and how improper oversight of the process led to delay, cost overruns, and the loss of intellectual property. The literature reviewed during this investigation is both peer-reviewed and Journalistic in nature.The following r eview is presented in a logical flow to show why Boeing chose this new strategy, some select major problems that occurred, and finally the actions that were taken to rectify those problems. Christopher S. Tang and Joshua D. Zimmerman (2009) begin their Journal article, Managing New Product Development and Supply Chain Risks: The Boeing 787 Case, by laying out the drivers for the 787 design strategy. In the 1990s, Boeing had decided that it must offer more customer value to compete with EADS' Airbus in the commercial aircraft industry.Ultimately, Boeing settled on designing a new mid-size, wide body Jet that would offer a superior passenger experience and burn 20% less fuel. To bring the Jet to market faster and cheaper, Boeing wanted to move away from its role as a manufacturer and become ore of a systems integrator. Tang, et al. say this strategy intended to save $4 billion in development cost and shave 2 years off the design period. (Tang, Zimmerman, ; Nelson, 2009) Boeing refers to these risk-sharing partners as â€Å"Global Supply Partners† (6SP).During an interview with World Trade; Steven Schaffer, then vice president of Boeing Commercial Airplanes' Global Partners, said the name change â€Å"reflect[ed] a deeper business relationship. † (Bernstein, 2006) In Chapter 8 of Cases on Supply Chain and Distribution Management: Issues and Principals, the nature of he relationship is further discussed. The suppliers are called â€Å"risk-sharing†, because they invest much of their own money into the success of the final assembled product. In fact, Boeing was able to get $4. billion of the $10 billion design budget from 6SPs around the world. These suppliers nave significant risk since they don't see any income until the aircraft are delivered. (Garg ; Gupta, 2012) In a seminal ex post analysis of the 787 outsourcing plan, Ehsan Elahi (2012) of the University of Massachusetts Boston asserts that improper monitoring and suboptimal supplier ele ction led to the appearance of many â€Å"hidden costs† and that Boeing didn't have an adequate understanding of the operational risks associated with outsourcing new product development.He concludes that these oversights led to poor stock performance, a drop it Boeings credit rating, and late delivery penalty payments for customers. The research by Elahi in the UMASS paper, along with his contribution to the Chapter in Miti Garg and Sumeet Gupta's book, lays out a great case for how too much reliance on outside design can lead to a loss of intellectual property. On pages 67-169 of the book, Elahi discusses how these partners were given the opportunity to learn how to build aircraft from composites without Boeing retaining any exclusivity rights.

Law and Intellectual Property Memorandum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Law and Intellectual Property Memorandum - Essay Example Yes, Mr. Kenobi is entitled to a fair royalty from Jedi and he also could seek a court injunction requiring his pictures to be removed from Jedi’s website until the royalty is received. Since i) Mr. Kenobi can prove that the pictures are his and ii) Jedi did digitally copy the pictures intentionally by deliberately uploading them onto Emperor’s server, this constitutes primary infringement. No, Mr. Kenobi is not entitled to any damages or royalties from Emperor. Since Empire is only providing a hosting service for Jedi’s website, Emperor did not directly nor intentionally copy the pictures, it simply received a copy of the pictures from Jedi through the rendering of a hosting service. This only constitutes secondary infringement and there was no intent to copy. Probably, Empire is liable to Jedi for the fair market value of the secret formula, unless specific damages had been outlined in the contract between them. Since Empire did not copy the information directly, it does not constitute primary infringement. Although it did inadvertently provide the means for others to do so, Empire did not have any intention of copying, therefore it does not constitute secondary infringement either. However, the data was explicitly labeled as confidential by Jedi and Empire was negligent in protecting the confidentiality of the data. Yes, Jedi is entitled to a fair royalty from its competitors for use of their unregistered design right and could also seek a court injunction to not only prevent the further illegal use of their secret formula but also have all products where their secret formula was illegally used recalled until the royalty is received. This office is considering possible liability between Jedi, Emperor, and Mr. Kenobi. Jedi has posted on its website (hosted by Empire) pictures reputed to belong to Mr. Kenobi.  Ã‚  

Do EU Regulations Provide Sufficient Protection From Child Essay

Do EU Regulations Provide Sufficient Protection From Child Exploitation Within Member States - Essay Example (Beckett, 2007) The European Convention on Human Rights 1950 was a more general attempt to define the rights of humans and it was not a child centric legislation. However, it sets the overall tone of the regulation and suggests that the rights of children have also been considered. This is also significant in the wake of the fact that EU Court on Human Rights has developed significant level of jurisprudence to cover extensively human rights issues pertaining to children. (Bueren, 2007) Local and national governments in EU are considered to be closer to their communities and are considered in a better position to safeguard the interests of the children under the UN Human Rights Charter and Child Rights. It is critical to note however, that children did not featured as a voice in the overall policy making and legislative process in EU till late 1990s. At the time of formation of treaty, though there was an emphasis on bringing in equality between men and women however, children hardly featured into the overall policy making and legislative process in the region. (Renucci, 2005) The Amsterdam Treaty for the first time however, realized this anomaly and clarified new changes though which discrimination based upon age was discouraged. Amsterdam Treaty was enacted in 1997 and supplemented the European Union Treaty. The Article 13 of the treaty clarified that Children should be included in the treaty and discrimination against them should be treated equally along with adults. (Cockburn, 2010) The overall child protection can also be viewed from the perspective of social protection. Expenditure on social protection is considered as one of the indicators of how the 27 member States actually contribute and intervene into reducing predefined risks to... Most of the existing studies on the topic are the reviews of the legislations made over the period of time. This research study will focus upon exploring as to whether these regulations have been effective in achieving their objectives. This research study will therefore provide an insight into how future legislations need to be done in order to make them more applicable and result oriented. Ethics are normally concerned with right, wrong, good and bad and outlines as to how issues of moral concerns can be explored. Since exploring the issue of child protection involves understanding the ethical point of view also, it is therefore critical that ethical inquiry should be blended with the qualitative research design to explore underlying research issues.More appropriately, the existing regulations from EU with respect to child protection will be explored from the perspective of Utilitarianism. Utilitarianism outlines the greater good for the greater number of people and as such existing regulations pertaining to child protection may be viewed from utilitarian perspective. Quantitative research methods will also be employed to explore and understand the impact of the legislations on the reduction of child exploitation. For the purpose of this research, a sample set of 10 member countries will be chosen. This sample will be randomly picked countries officially admitted to the membership of EU since last 10 years.

Should the United Kingdom Introduce a Written Constitution Essay

Should the United Kingdom Introduce a Written Constitution - Essay Example A constitution may come in two forms --the written and unwritten constitution. When these set of laws are put in writing and bound in a single document it is then called a written constitution, otherwise it is referred to as an unwritten constitution. Presently, most countries have formulated and are functioning and enforcing their laws through a written constitution. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (United Kingdom) however is far removed from these modern day countries since they do not have a written constitution as yet.   Aside from these two countries, there are only a handful of countries that remain without a written constitution, namely--New Zealand, Israel and San Marino. Countries that function without a written constitution are similarly referred to as countries with an uncodified constitution as the sources of laws, governmental and individual rights are not contained in one fundamental instrument but rather embodied in a series of documents. The judicial branch makes use Acts of Parliament, Treaties, European Union Law, Common Law, Conventions and Works of Authority as their reference in deciding a case. Royal prerogatives and Parliamentary constitutional conventions are equally used as their sources of law.  From the given characteristics of a constitution the question still remains: Is there a need for the United Kingdom to introduce a written constitution? This paper aims to weigh the advantages and disadvantages of introducing a written constitution in the United Kingdom and to arrive at an educated opinion whether it would be best for the United Kingdom to create its own constitution. The position of the researcher is for the United Kingdom to maintain its current disposition on the grounds that it has long survived without a written constitution and it has created safeguards that would ensure that its citizens’ rights and liberties would be protected from the self-interest of those people in power.

Human Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Human Development - Essay Example Pavlov’s research indicated that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations. The learning process was argued to have grounds on which environmental stimulus and naturally occurring stimulus could be associated (Watson 6). Therefore, this means that the focus of behaviorism is purely on the idea that human behavior is acquired as a result of interaction with the environment (Berger 2005). In regard to contribution of behaviorism to my development, it is apparent that behaviorism played a key part in dictating my current personality. Having been brought up in rural areas, most of the behaviors of the rural people were vested on me because I always interacted with them. The rural school setting is different from urban school setting. We used to travel for long distances to school and believed that schooling is a difficult task that one has to strive to achieve. Nevertheless, this was instrumental to me because I have always worked hard to achieve my desires. This is contrary to urban people who are brought up in urban settings. They have little struggles because the life in the urban is a bit comfortable than the life in the rural settings. This is equally the same case to children brought up in wealthy families and those that are brought up in rural settings. The personality of these two groups of people is wide owing to the lifestyle that they are exposed to. It is argued that people brought up in areas where crime is prevalent tend to adapt to criminal behaviors. Most people who engage in crime are either due to the influence of drugs or as a result of poverty. Since such people have little they can do to change their lives, they resort to crime and drugs as a way of either reducing stress or use crime as a way of earning a living. Hence, it is true to stipulate that the environment that such people find themselves in influences their character so that they can fit in it. Theory of cognitive development was pioneered by Jean Piaget who

MGM624-0901A-01 Applied Accounting for Decision-Making - Phase 1 Essay - 1

MGM624-0901A-01 Applied Accounting for Decision-Making - Phase 1 Discussion Board 2 - Essay Example However, a steep increase in the prices will have an adverse effect on the sales volume. Hence an increase of 5% in the sales price will bring the break even volume back to [500,000 / (315 – 115)] 2,500 units. It is evident that JTI has invested heavily in the initial manufacturing of the new luggage line. Steps have to be taken to increase productivity of the entire manufacturing process, by reducing wastage and increasing the effectiveness of the labour. The effectiveness of the resources can be attained by introducing incentives based on performance. Awards can also be presented to the most effective employees every month and this will act as a motivating factor for the employees to increase the productivity (Samuels et al, 2000). Assuming that theses schemes reduce the variable costs to $110, then the break even volume becomes [500,000 – (315 – 110)] 2,440 units. There is a risk of losing sales volume, when the price is increased. The increase in price is profitable as long as the sales volume remains at 3,600 units. It is essential to consider the number of customers JTI stands to lose by increasing the prices (Baker et al, 2008). There are a number of risks involved in introducing incentives based on performance to increase the performance. The management has to set up benchmarks to quantify performance. In case the goals set are impossible to attain, the scheme will de-motivate the employees and can have a negative impact on productivity. Also, if the goals are very simple to attain, then the company stands to lose more in terms of incentive payouts to the employees (Latham, 2004). Hence excessive care has to be taken to set the benchmarks against which the performance of the employees will be measured. From the above arguments, it is clear that JTI has to increase prices and also increase the productivity in order to maintain

Individual interviewsversus group interviews Essay

Individual interviewsversus group interviews - Essay Example Individual interviews are also found to be an appropriate form of data collection in the event that an interviewer needs to ask a number of follow up questions. During individual interviews, there is no significant time delay between when a question is first posed by the interviewer and when the interviewee answers it. Both the interviewer and the interviewee can be able to immediately react to what the other happens to be saying. A key advantage to his synchronous communication is identified as being the fact that the answers provided by the interviewee are found to be more spontaneous without having any extended reflection (Harris, 2013). Group interview or focus groups would be deemed to be more appropriate or be beneficial when used in addition to individual interviews in the event that the interview wants to determine how the different candidates are able to interact with each other in a group setting. The interviewer may ask the interviews to work together towards the resolution of problems. This will provide an opportunity whereby the interviewer will be able to observe and very carefully note how each individual performs. Group interview are found be more appropriate in the event that an interviewer wishes to reduce the amount of time it takes to conduct the interview. Individual interviews tend to take a lot of time but with group interviews, a number of candidates can all be interviewed at one go (Denscombe,

Strategics management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Strategics management - Research Paper Example Evaluation of a strategy is also an inherent part of strategic management because without knowing whether the current strategy is working or not, no firm can set and achieve goals. In this essay we will discuss how strategic management skills can be applied by managers. It is important for managers to define the purpose of the organization. Vision of a firm informs the employees and the customers about the purpose and value of the firm (Mind Tools, 2011). It is an essential part of application of strategic management skills to design vision of a firm so as to guide employees regarding their behavior. Customers can also learn through vision of a firm about how can they be benefitted by the firm. Usually vision of a firm is defined in a sentence or a statement commonly known as the vision statement. It entails the long term purpose of the firm and how employees are supposed to operate in the company. Strategic management is all about taking strategic decisions and strategic decisions have certain characteristics. Strategic decisions are of high magnitude, they have a long term focus, and they require high level of commitment (Haberberg & Rieple, 2007). Vision statement is also a strategic decision because it has all above three characteristics. Objectives of the firm are more specific short term targets. Strategic management skills are applied to define short term targets for the firm and short term targets are important for a firm because they serve as steps that can lead the firm to the long term targets. Firms also require regular assessment of their position and for that short term targets serve useful. Vision of a firm is a broadly defined purpose of the organization, on the other hand objectives are short term targets that can be measured empirically and are specific. Managers should always check whether the firm is treading on the right path or not, and vision and objectives help managers in

Animal Testing Controversy Essay Example for Free

Animal Testing Controversy Essay Each year, millions of animals suffer and die in the process of inhumane testing for the purposes of drug and chemical research, and medical experiments and training exercises. Animals including cats, dogs, rabbits, and mice are force fed harmful substances that are infected with lethal viruses causing reactions like brain damage, strokes, and heart attacks. Not only are these experiments painful to the animals and sometimes fatal, but also they fail to accurately reflect human reactions and are not required by the FDA. The primary reason why animal testing should cease to exist is because it is inhumane to strip a helpless animal of its rights for the benefit of experimentation and research. Animals have a basic moral right to respectful treatment . . .. This inherent value is not respected when animals are reduced to being mere tools in a scientific experiment.† (Lonestar) While animals cannot express themselves as humans can, they can feel, think, behave, and experience pain. Their inability to express themselves should not be taken advantage of. While the FDA encourages manufacturers to conduct whatever testing is necessary to ensure the safety of their products, it does not specifically require the use of animals. (FDA) The FDA actually encourages companies to consider alternatives before deciding that testing on animals is necessary. They advocate that research and testing for products use a maximum amount of useful scientific information and a minimal number of animals tested. When testing does occur, they advocate for the most humane methods available. The Food and Drug Administration supports the Animal Welfare Act and the Public Health Service Policy of Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. If companies are not required by the FDA to test their products on animals, there is no reason that it should be a method that is resorted to for experimentation. Not only is animal testing morally incorrect, but it is also not the most effective method to conduct research on products to be used by humans. In fact, 92 percent of experimental drugs that are safe and effective in animals fail to tell us that they are too dangerous or ineffective on humans. (Do Something) When conducting an experiment for safety and efficacy on animals, the purpose is to try the product on a living system before exposing it to a human. But the complicated living system of a human being barely compares to that of a helpless small animal. For example Aspirin and chocolate are harmful to cats and dogs while they remain completely unharmful to humans. There are many alternatives that can be used in place for testing on animals. â€Å"Alternative† tests are those that meet one or more of the standards of the â€Å"three R’s: They replace procedures that uses animals with one that doesn’t, reduce the number of animals used in the procedure, or refine a procedure to alleviate or minimize potential animal pain. (DoSomething) While not all of the ‘R’s’ are a complete solution to animal testing, putting any of the three in place would make a significant impact on the lives of many animals. As citizens and consumers, there are ways that we can stand up for the cause of the animals being tested. Many animals are harmed in the process of experimentation for educational purposes. We can demand that our alma maters stop using animals for this purpose. Buying cruelty-free products is something that can be done as a consumer to take away business from companies that test their products on animals. We can make sure that when donating to charities, we choose those that dont experiment on animals. As citizens, we can request from our government legislation that requires alternatives to animal dissection and the immediate implementation of humane, effective non-animal tests. (PETA) Opponents would have you believe that it is okay for animals to be tested on so that humans and sometimes animals would suffer less in the future, however, â€Å"We should be concerned about how animals are treated in research, and [†¦] eliminate the number of animals who suffers† (ASPCA). Researchers are concerned only with their results and not the harmful process it takes to get them. It is clear that not only is animal testing cruel and necessary, but ineffective. However with alternatives to testing and strategies of protest, it’s possible for us to begin to diminish animal testing.

Describe and evaluate theories of aggression

Describe and evaluate theories of aggression There are many forms of aggression used in society today, from name calling in the playground to domestic violence, a man or women being beaten by his or her spouse. There are several on-going debates regarding aggression development, one of the main debates is nature versus nurture with Konrad Lorenz supporting the nature theory by suggesting that aggression is an instinct that we are all born with and Albert Bandura supporting the nurture theory, believing that a child is influenced by their surroundings and by their upbringing. This leads to the question could aggression be genetically transferred to us like the colour of our hair or eyes or does it develop as we grow and mature and interact with the world around us. Frustration and anger are common precursors to aggression but anger doesnt always turn into aggression; frustration arising from inability to control a situation leads to anger which may or may not escalate to full blown aggression. Anger can lead to irritation; when we get ready in the morning to go to work and the car does not start we may feel frustrated and sense the anger warming up our face, however, it may not escalate to aggression because the object did not choose to act that way. In other words, we feel angry or aggressive when we know that the source of frustration could have chosen to behave in a better or more desirable manner. A study by Averill and Weiner showed that anger arises when someone who frustrates us could have chosen to act otherwise. (Myers 2005, p.387) The evolutionary explanation of human aggression suggests that aggression serves as an important function in terms of the individuals survival as well as its potential to procreate. Newman et al discovered genes that are linked to aggression in Macaque monkeys and this gene has been present in them for at least 25 million years and so for that gene to have survived it must have provided some advantages. One explanation for aggression in people is that humans are somehow programmed to be aggressive and violent and that it part of a persons basic nature. Another view suggests that aggression is an inherited fighting instinct that we share with other species. In the past males had to act aggressively to get rid of competition and get the mate they desire. They eliminated their competition either by driving them away or by killing them. Aggression can thus be seen to serve adaptive purposes. Because the males who were fittest survived and got the most access to females it may have lead to the aggressive gene to be passed on and so creates a more aggressive generation which is stronger and fitter than the last. Spriggs (1999) argued that our hunter-gatherer ancestors would have formed a social structure based on stamina, physical strength and stature. So our ancestors survived on their abilities and an adaptive aggressive tendency. Males might also have become the aggressors was in order to win favour of the females and then pass on his genes. Since evolutionary success was built on the foundation of the aggressive male and responsive female, evolution continues to favour the social groups dominated by natural selection. There is however various factors that help prove the theory that genetics is a large component in aggression. Some hunters in groups were better than other; some groups produced more males, males that were better at gathering sources, which is why in some cultures it is seen more desirable to have males. Those men who have the combined traits of strength, stamina and cunning begin to outperform and bring back more than the others. As a result their stature grew and so did their chances of reproduction. The disadvantage with this theory is that the evidence given is based on thousands of years ago when humanity first began, so it is difficult to empirically test. Some scientists argue that this theory is defenseless and has no real evidence. Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud agreed with the nature theory to aggression development, he believed in the instinct theory. He stated that everyone is born with an instinct to live, Eros, and an instinct to die, Thanatos, and that as our aggression builds up and builds up, we can turn our death instinct towards others in a movement of self preservation to stop us from destroying ourselves. This process is known as the hydraulic theory; Freud suggested that the only way around this was to find another way to vent our aggression build up possibly through some form of therapeutic release such as sport. Lorenz studied animals as he believed, like Darwin, that we evolved from animals and he found that we have inherited a fighting instinct from them. He supports the nature theory but his beliefs differ from Freuds as he finds aggression a beneficial instinct that doesnt come from an internal struggle between our life and death instincts but from an instinct to protect territory, part ners and young from rivals of the same species. Megargee and Mendelsohn agreed with Freuds theories and completed a study on people who had committed brutally aggressive crimes, they found that their aggression had been repressed for so long until it built up so much that something trivial caused an aggressive outburst, and, as Freuds theory predicts, after the outburst the attacker returned to a normal calm state with no signs of an aggressive nature. There are a lot of problems with the instinct theory one being that it is difficult to test and another being that not everyone displays the same levels of aggression in the same circumstances which suggests biological factors alone cannot be responsible. Also there are some societies that show almost no acts of aggression at all such as the Amish located in both America and Canada and the Nubians situated in Egypt. There is also the view that aggression is something we learn or imitate from people around us this is known as the social learning theory. The Social Learning theory proposes that the cause of all aggressive behaviour is due to interactions with others in our social world. According to social learning theorists such as Bandura, aggressive behaviour is learned in either one of 2 ways, by direct experience which is based on operant conditioning or by vicarious (indirect) experience which is based on observational learning. Operant conditioning is for example, when a child pushes another child and, as a result, gets something they want; the action is then reinforced and is likely to occur in similar situations in the future. However observational learning is when a child sees a role model behaving in a particular way and imitates the behaviour of the model. It is thought that most aggression is learnt by observational learning, usually from those who are of a big significance to us. From these models we learn about the nature of aggressive behaviour and to which situations this behaviour is appropriate and also its likely consequences. According to behaviourists, behaviour that is reinforced (rewarded) will be repeated and learned and aggression that is associated with a reward (e.g. Praise) is likely to be learned. However there are various factors that can determine whether a person will be aggressive in a certain situation, one of these is whether a persons previous experiences of aggression (either their own or aggression of another person) were good or bad experiences. Another factor is whether these previous experiences were successful or not, this then allows them to assess how likely their aggressive behaviour will get them rewarded or punished in this certain situation. Finally, the cognitive, social and environmental factors that are operating at the same time, for example a person isnt likely to act aggressive if they fear that the victim may retaliate. On the other hand, aggression is likely to increase if person is in a hostile situation. Bandura combines the logic of both social psychology and cognitive psychology in his social cognitive perspective of human behaviour. Bandura thought that behaviour may be motivated not only by inherent psychological factors but also by more socio-environmental factors. He argued that the individual and the social environment were linked, something he called reciprocal determinism. Bandura social learning theory had four basic processes which are Attention, Retention, Reproduction and Motivation (Reinforcements). Attention only occurs if a person attends to the models behaviour. Retention happens as we code and remember the behaviour by placing it into long-term memory. Reproduction happens if an individual is capable of reproducing the models behaviour. If an individual expects to receive positive reinforcements this will then motivate an individuals behaviour, which is the motivation process. The Social Learning theorys view on aggression is supported by various experiments. Banduras most well-known study is the Bobo Doll Study whch involved child male and female participants from 3 to 5 years old with half the participants exposed to aggressive models interacting with a life-sized inflatable Bobo doll whilst the other half were exposed to models with no aggression. Children in the aggressive condition reproduced most of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviour whereas children in the non aggressive showed virtually no aggression. The findings support the Social Learning theory as the aggressive behaviour displayed came diectly from watching an aggressive model. Bandura also carried out variations of his study, one showing the model being rewarded or punished in a variety of ways, the kids were rewarded for their imitations, and the model was changed to be less attractive or less prestigious, and so on. Â   Responding to criticism that Bobo dolls were supposed to be hit, he even did a film of the young woman beating up a live clown. Â   When the children went into the other room, what should they find there but the live clown! Â   They proceeded to punch him, kick him, hit him with little hammers, and so on. The variations support the Social Learning Theory even more because of its 4 processes with the last being motivation/reinforcements. One variation showed that from 3 different groups the group that had seen the model being rewarded for aggressive behaviour showed high levels of aggression, however those who seen the model punished performed a lower level of aggression and the ones that saw the model neither punished nor rewarded fell between the other two levels. This supports Social Learning Theorys about reinforcements. However, the studies lack ecological validity because they were carried out in Laboratory conditions which means the results may not be able to be applied to real world situations. On the other hand Social Learning Theory can explain inconsistencies in aggressive behaviour. For example, if someone is aggressive and overpowering at home, yet meek and passive at work then it means they have learned to behave differently in the two situations as aggression brings reward in one place but not the other. Therefore the theory makes logical sense that we have learned this. SLT can also explain cultural differences in aggressive behaviour. The culture of violence theory proposes that some cultures emphasize and model aggressive behaviour whilst others do the opposite and so are more likely to produce individuals with low levels of aggression. This means that there isnt cultural bias in the studies as they have studied various different cultures and explained the differences between them. Also, the studies have lead to other developments in the real world so have importance in the fact the studies have practical applications. The studies have lead to changes such as focus on the effects of the visual media on both children and Adults. It has also led to implications on other different places such as classroom use. This is because now they can see certain reinforcements could be put into use, for example rewarded for answering a very hard question in class or being punished for maybe hitting another pupil in the class. It is effective for increasing appropriate behaviour and also good for decreasing inappropriate behaviours. However, although the theory has many strong points it also has its weaknesses such as the fact that the Social Learning Theory is also reductionist in the sense that is ignores biological factors. Biological theorists argue that Social Learning Theory ignores biological factors completely. It doesnt look at brain structures or possible learning difficulties and therefore the results collected could lack validity. It also means that SLT takes the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate. Finally, one of the main issues with the Social Learning Theorys research studies; in particular Bandura is the fact that it seen as very unethical and also morally wrong to encourage the children to be aggressive. David Skuse from the Institute of Child Health also conducted his own study on 224 former male child abuse victims he disagrees with Zeanah and Zeanah and found that only 12% of these abused children went on in later life to copy or imitate this abuse. Myers (2005 p. 386), explains, Displacement is the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target. It is difficult to understand why people intentionally cause harm to others; however, it is even more complex to comprehend why an innocent third person would be targeted to express frustration. Several theories have emerged on the subject and they give us better insight into the psychology of displaced aggression. Conventional psychology suggested that displaced aggression was closely connected with low-self esteem. However since the breakthrough study by Baumeister (1996), conventional wisdom has given way to a startling revelation, i.e. people with high ego are more likely to engage in aggressive behaviour than people with lower self esteem. Baumeister and Bushman (1998) studied aggression in more detail and in greater depth than many other researchers. They were the first to suggest that low self-esteem may have not any link to aggression rather it is inflated ego that appears to lead to aggression. In their study they tested young adults for narcissism and found that those who scored higher on narcissist scale would react with significantly more aggression than those who scored low on this scale. Self-love, as they had put it, was thus found to be closely linked to aggression. It would be important to understand here that self-esteem is not the same thing as ego. Some very egoistical people may not have high self-esteem. Even though these terms have been used interchangeably, it is wrong to assume that they are the same. The reason Baumeister and Bushman (1998) used them this way is because a person with low self-esteem doesnt really love himself and self-love was the main subject of this research. Temperature can play an important role with aggression, (Baron/ Bell) did research involving the effects of heat on aggression by seeing how willing a participant would be to give electric shocks to another,they found that temperatures within the range of 92-95F generally increased the level of aggression. However when the temperatures became too extreme they found the lvels of aggression decreased, in these conditions the participants were stressed and did not want to handle the persons angry reactions, because they didnt want the hassle of the added stress. Baron and Bells study showed a curvilinear effect (where the relationship between heat and aggression both increase together but as it gets to a certain point the aggression decreases) between temperature and aggression which was predicted by the NAE theory saying that when temperature becomes very high an individual seeks to escape lowering aggression, but at lower temperatures the negative affect leads to aggression. There have been many scientists that feel that outside factors are the cause of aggression, Berkowitz studied the effects of coldness on aggressive tendencies and found that students that held their hands in very cold water showed an increase in the likeliness of aggression towards fellow students. Whereas Carlsmith and Anderson studied 79 cities between 1967 and 1971 and they found that aggression was more likely to occur when it was particularly hot days. With so many studies showing different triggers and responses to aggression it is unlikely that we will ever find a definite cause. It could be a combination of all theories or just depend on the subject concerned however as long as there is aggression and violence in society it will continue to be researched and studied. Bibliography Davenport G.C (1994) An Introduction to Child Development Collins Educational London Gross R. And McIlveen R. (1998) Psychology A New Introduction Greengate Publishing Services Kent www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1093439 Accessed 21/03/09 www.beyondintractability.org/essay/aggression Accessed 21/03/09 www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Aggression.topicArticleId-25438,articleId-25408.html Date accessed 21/03/09 www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/bandura.htm Date accessed 21/03/09 http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/exchange/node/1809 Date accessed 21/03/09 http://209.85.229.132/search?q=cache:xd_v53tfKawJ:learn.hackney.ac.uk/file.php/32/Psychology_-_Dean/Social_Psychology/Handout_06_-_Theories_of_Aggression.doc+theories+of+aggressioncd=12hl=enct=clnkgl=uk Date accessed 21/03/09 Displaced aggression is an abnormal behavior even if found commonly in some people. It is continued as an easier form of aggression release if the aggressor has been successful the first time. If the aggression directed to the innocent target results in a positive outcome for the aggressor, the aggression is rewarded. The individual will recur to the same method of release of frustration the next time he faces similar situation if he feels that there are not consequences connected to the harm-doing. When punishment to this behavior is applied, it can teach the aggressor self-control. Displaced Aggression in children and young adults Unfortunately, when a parent has no control over the emotions caused by frustration and had tasted the reward of aggression, he/she is more likely to continue displacing the aggression toward his family; therefore, his children will learn aggression as a normal behavior. Displacement effects are, certainly, attached to ethnic and racial conflicts as well as many other social behaviors. Discrimination and prejudice are forms of aggression displacement. Motivation to restore equity may also produce displacement-like behavior. Displacement of aggression can also be observed in children at schools when they decide to transfer the frustration caused by a teachers negative attitude against them, toward others students. They cannot attack physically or verbally the teacher so displacement of the aggression is redirected to a target other than the source of frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target. (Myers, 2005, p. 386). In this case, the targets are those kids to whom the teacher pays more attention. The teacher represents the authority, problem-solver person in charge and, in many cases, the children cannot approach them to talk about their feelings and even the needs they have about a subject. Then, the frustration turns into anger and without self control, in aggressive behavior. The student will feel rewarded by the displacement aggressive act even if the release of frustration is temporary. Displaced Aggression and Self-esteem Choice of Target It has also been found that aggressors choice of the innocent target is dependent on some important factors such as similarity of the target to the actual source or similarity of the situation in which the target was found. In other words, a person who behaves violently towards his wife when she asks him why he never mowed the lawn chose his wife as the target because her request bore some resemblance to the aggressive requests made by his boss. Miller (1948) suggested that choice of target is not a random act. It is based on three factors: a. the strength of the instigation to aggression b. the strength of inhibitions against such behavior c. The stimulus similarity of each potential victim to the frustrating agent. (Baron, 1977,p.24) The third factor explains that a target is chosen because it resembled the frustrating agent. The person may have used the same tone, asked for something similar, or made a demand in similar manner. It can be anything but as long as in the aggressors mind, it resembled the source, this target would be chosen. But this is not the only factor. It has also been found that the resembling target must also exhibit certain weakness. He/she must appear weaker than the original source and also weaker than the aggressor himself. A strong target no matter how much it resembles the source is most often not selected because the aggressor cannot hope to be successful against him. Triggers and Displaced Aggression In this regard, triggered displaced aggression studies have offered some interesting insights. Triggered displaced aggression suggests that strength of the trigger is closely connected with level of displaced aggression. Mild triggers were most often responded to with very high levels of displaced aggression compared to moderate or strong trigger. Vasquez et al. (2004) used triggers to examine the situations in which a person may choose to display displaced aggression. He found that mild triggers were more likely to result in serious displaced aggression compared to moderate or strong triggers. For example, episodes of road rage or spousal abuse are frequently elicited by minor events. Thus, in many of these episodes, a prior provocation or frustration may have contributed to the aggression observed in response to a minor impoliteness on the highway or a wifes reminder about the uncut lawn. Moreover, aggressive individuals may not even be explicitly aware that their response to the person who provided the minor triggering event may be inordinately disproportionate. Although the process details presented here are incomplete, future research conducted within the TDA paradigm may eventually lead to a complete understanding of situational and individual moderators of aggressive responding among previously provoked participants in response to a mild triggering provocation. It is hoped that through understanding these moderators and process variables, efforts to limit aggressive responding may be developed. Vasquez (2004) and others who have studied triggered displaced aggression used terms that might confuse a person regarding the connection between strength of triggers and displaced aggression. In simple terms, the reason a mild trigger elicits highest level of displaced aggression is because of the inherent weakness of the trigger. The target chose to use a mild trigger because he/she apparently lacked the strength to make a stronger provocation. The aggressor takes it as a sign of weakness that gives him the confidence to lash out and choose the person as a target. Conclusion We have often come across cases of displaced aggression. We may have also been guilty of engaging in it ourselves too without realizing that our aggression was displaced. Displaced aggression is not only found in adults but is also exhibited by children. It is a common not highly undesirable way to react to a provocative situation. The behavior is considered abnormal and is closely linked to inflated ego instead of self esteem. Children can learn displaced aggression as a normal way of reacting to frustration because that is how their parents behaved. Aggressors choose their targets based on some important characteristics. Most importantly this target should resemble the actual source in some manner and must also exhibit certain degree of weakness. It is important to understand that our research revealed no direct link between self esteem but was linked to narcissist behavior. A person who loves himself in an abnormal manner fails to take insults in its proper perspective and decides that he would react strongly even if the actual source remains unmoved. This is when an innocent third person is chosen. Displaced aggression can be treated through carefully administered punishment that sends a message that this kind of behavior is undesired and must be discontinued.

The Home Changes With Time :: descriptive essay, observation essay

The Home Changes With Time Way up in the mountains, above the reaches of the hustle and bustle of the industrialized world, stands a large wooden house with loose shingles hanging off the roof, and the paint is chipping from years of wind and snow. The house was constructed on the slope of the mountain, and a long flight of stairs must be climbed to reach the first floor. The deck extends from the house on three sides, on both the first and second floors. It is a grand old house. Watching my step carefully, I climbed up the long flight of stairs to the first floor. I reached my hand out to grab the handrail, only to pull it away quickly as I received a sharp prick from the rough uncared-for wood. When I finally reach the first deck of the house, I have to stop to inflate my lungs with the barely oxygenated air of 10,000 feet. I walk across the twisted and contorted deck to the dirty-white door lined by turquoise trim. The trim color seems odd now; I don't remember it from my last visit. I stick the key into the brass handle knob and swing the door open; a rush of musty air makes my nostrils flare and twitch out of control. Looking across the neat unlived in room, memories of times when people actually lived in this house fill my mind. Spider webs tangle themselves around my head as I walk across the room towards the stairs that lead up to the second floor. I look up the dark, tight passageway of stairs, then search for the light switch that is connected to the bubble light hanging from the slanted ceiling above. After turning it to the on position, I wrap my hands around the handrails on each side and slowly pull myself up the stairs. After reaching the second floor I turned right into an open room lit brightly by the sunlight that pours in through the large windows. There are a couple of couches placed around the room. A large floral couch, backed up against the wall, is a perfect seat to relax and stare out through the treetops at the large snow capped peaks of the Rocky Mountains. Across the room sits a smaller black futon that folds down into a double bed. Next to the futon, is a tall china cabinet filled with magnificently colored wineglasses and china plates.

The Green IT Movement Essay -- Trends in Green IT

Green IT is a trending topic within Information Technology that when properly leveraged can help an organization to save money, improve efficiency, and reduce its environmental footprint. â€Æ' TABLE OF CONTENTS: ICT and Environment......................................................................................................3 Introduction........................................................................................................3 Overview of Green IT........................................................................................................................4 Importance of Green IT.....................................................................................................................4 Case Studies.........................................................................................................5 Cost of Green IT........................................................................................................................7 Future Scope of Green IT................................................................................................7 CIO's Point of View............................................................................................................8 Is Green IT a Fad?........................................................................................................8 Green IT Framework...............................................................................................................9 Recommendations........................................................................................................10 Learnings from the Course................................................................................................. ...rre Berthon, Victoria Crittenden, Philip DesAutels and Leyland Pitt 6. Greenwich Hospital: http://www.cl-p.com/downloads/Greenwich%20Hospital.pdf?id=4294986860&dl=t 7. Syracuse University: http://blogs.cuit.columbia.edu/greendc/?s=syracuse+university 8. Syracuse University: Desktop http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052970204908604574336280116296164?mg=reno64-wsj&url=http%3A%2F%2Fonline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052970204908604574336280116296164.html 9. VMware: http://www.cio.com/article/728095/How_BYOD_Saved_VMware_2_Million 10. http://www.emc.com/leadership/tech-view/going-green.htm 11. http://www.carnegiecyberacademy.com/facultyPages/environment/issues.html 12. http://www.greentelecomlive.com/2009/10/23/green-it-now-imperative-for-today%E2%80%99s-corporations-%E2%80%93-connection-research/ 13. http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/503867

Argumentative Speech on Baseball Contraction -- essays research papers

Baseball Contraction will only hurt the Game I. Introduction A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Baseball is the American pastime and has been played for over 125 years. B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is an organization that has teams in both the United States and Canada and it also boasts players from countries all over the world. C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is also a league that has been criticized for giving its players absurd contracts worth hundreds of millions of dollars. Internal Preview--Major League Baseball is a multi-billion dollar organization with aristocrat billionaire owners and the most powerful union organization ever in the Major League Baseball Players Association. II. Problem A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Major League Baseball owners have voted to contract the league and disband 2 of the 30 teams in the league before next season. B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The owners claim that it would not be profitable to keep playing baseball in Montreal and Minnesota. C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  25 baseball players from each team will lose their jobs, but other teams in the league will pick them up. D.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The people this really hurts are the people behind the scenes: the administrative employees, the hot dog vendor, the ticket window lady, the beer man, the hundreds of baseball players in these teams minor league programs. Internal Summary--Hundreds of people who have been loyal workers to these teams for years will soon be unemployed. III. Cause A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Over the past few years inflation of player contracts has made it hard for the smaller market teams to play competitively w... Argumentative Speech on Baseball Contraction -- essays research papers Baseball Contraction will only hurt the Game I. Introduction A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Baseball is the American pastime and has been played for over 125 years. B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is an organization that has teams in both the United States and Canada and it also boasts players from countries all over the world. C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is also a league that has been criticized for giving its players absurd contracts worth hundreds of millions of dollars. Internal Preview--Major League Baseball is a multi-billion dollar organization with aristocrat billionaire owners and the most powerful union organization ever in the Major League Baseball Players Association. II. Problem A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Major League Baseball owners have voted to contract the league and disband 2 of the 30 teams in the league before next season. B.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The owners claim that it would not be profitable to keep playing baseball in Montreal and Minnesota. C.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  25 baseball players from each team will lose their jobs, but other teams in the league will pick them up. D.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The people this really hurts are the people behind the scenes: the administrative employees, the hot dog vendor, the ticket window lady, the beer man, the hundreds of baseball players in these teams minor league programs. Internal Summary--Hundreds of people who have been loyal workers to these teams for years will soon be unemployed. III. Cause A.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Over the past few years inflation of player contracts has made it hard for the smaller market teams to play competitively w...

Good and Bad Dams

Latin America and Caribbean Region Sustainable Development Working Paper 16 Good Dams and Bad Dams: Environmental Criteria for Site Selection of Hydroelectric Projects November 2003 George Ledec Juan David Quintero The World Bank Latin America and Caribbean Region Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Department (LCSES) Latin America and the Caribbean Region Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 16 Good Dams and Bad Dams: Environmental Criteria for Site Selection of Hydroelectric Projects November 2003George Ledec Juan David Quintero The World Bank Latin America and the Caribbean Region Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Sector Management Unit George Ledec has worked with the World Bank since 1982, and is presently Lead Ecologist for the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Unit (LCSES) of the World Bank’s Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office. He specializes in the environmental assessment of development projects, wit h particular focus on biodiversity and related conservation oncerns. He has worked extensively with the environmental aspects of dams, roads, oil and gas, forest management, and protected areas, and is one of the main authors of the World Bank’s Natural Habitats Policy. Dr. Ledec earned a Ph. D. in Wildland Resource Science from the University of California-Berkeley, a Masters in Public Affairs from Princeton University, and a Bachelors in Biology and Environmental Studies from Dartmouth College.Juan David Quintero joined the World Bank in 1993 and is presently Lead Environmental Specialist for LCSES and Coordinator of the Bank’s Latin America and Caribbean Quality Assurance Team, which monitors compliance with environmental and social safeguard policies. He specializes in environmental assessment of infrastructure projects, mainly roads, hydropower, oil and gas, urban transport, and water supply and sanitation. He has received the Regional Award from the International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) for promoting improvements in environmental impact assessments throughout Latin America.He is a civil engineer with postgraduate degrees in Environmental and Sanitary Engineering. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions in this document are those of the authors, and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, its affiliated organizations, members of its Board of Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. This working paper series is produced by the Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Sector Management Unit of the Latin America and Caribbean Regional Office. Additional copies may be obtained from the authors or from LCSES Program Assistant Peter Brandriss ([email  protected] rg, or tel. 1-202-473-9379). Cover photos (clockwise from upper left): Loksop Dam, South Africa Guavio Dam, Colombia Yacyreta Dam, Argentina/Paraguay All photos by George Ledec ii Contents Acknowledgments †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. iv Foreword †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. v Executive Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ii Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1 Adverse Environmental Impacts of Hydropower Development †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3 Key Indicators of Likely Environmental Impacts †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9 Overview of Environmentally Good and Bad Hydroelectric Dam Sites †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 13 Conclusions †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 17 Tables 1. Hydroelectric Projects: Adverse Impacts and Mitigation Options 4 2. Land Area Flooded and People Displaced in Large Hydropower Projects iii 12 Acknowledgments Doug Mason (consultant) compiled data on more than twenty completed Latin American hydroelectric projects; this information was very useful in our analysis of environmental and social impacts, mitigation measures, and site selection criteria.Several current and former World Bank Group staff members provided useful comments and much encouragement, including Alessandro Palmieri, John Briscoe, Teresa Serra, Tony Whitten, Robert Goodland, Tor Ziegler, Warren Van Wicklin, William Partridge, Maria Clara Mejia, Kristine Ivarsdotter, Mateen Thobani, Salman Salman, and A. J. Glauber. This paper also reflects the helpful comments provided by Dominique Egre and Gaitan Guertin (Hydro-Quebec), Jose Goldemberg (World Commission on Dams), and Paul Dulin. Peter Brandriss helped edit and prepare the report for publication. iv ForewordFew types of development projects arouse as much controversy as hydroelectric dams. Their often serious environmental damage has been amply documented within the past decade. Nonetheless, many countries, in Latin America and worldwide, rely upon hydroelectric dams for a major portion of their electric power. Electricity remains a key ingredient for improving the lives of poor people almost everywhere. In developing countries, rapid urbanization and continued population growth will ensure increased demand for electric power for decades to come, even with the most successful of demand management and en ergy efficiency measures.Energy planners in many developing countries are thus likely to continue seeing hydroelectric dams as a promising source of renewable electric power. This report provides important advice for substantially reducing the environmental damage from future hydroelectric dams (whether or not they receive World Bank Group financing) through good project site selection. Although the report’s conclusions are drawn primarily from a review of Latin American dams, its innovative methodology for dam site selection–based on robust environmental and social criteria and straightforward, quantitative indicators–should prove useful worldwide.The report also helpfully summarizes the environmental mitigation options for the improved operation of existing hydroelectric dams. As such, this report should be of considerable interest to people interested in hydroelectric dams, whether at the World Bank, other multilateral and bilateral development institutions, government agencies, private energy companies, consulting firms, environmental and other NGOs, and academia. This report is part of the LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper Series published by the Latin America and the Caribbean Region’s Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Sector Management Unit (LCSES).This series seeks to disseminate the results of our analytical and operational work, present preliminary findings, and describe â€Å"best practices† with respect to major sustainable development issues facing the region. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in these papers are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed to the World Bank, members of its Board of Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. John Redwood Director Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development Latin America and Caribbean Region The World Bank v Executive SummaryLarge dams vary considerably in their adverse environment al and related social impacts. From an environmental standpoint, there are relatively good dams and bad dams. While some large dams are relatively benign, others have caused major environmental damage. The severity of environmental impacts from a hydroelectric project is largely determined by the dam site. While dams at good sites can be very defensible from an environmental standpoint, those proposed at bad sites will inherently be highly problematic, even if all feasible mitigation measures are properly implemented.This paper provides a simple, yet robust, methodology for comparing proposed hydroelectric project sites in terms of their expected negative environmental impacts, and relating these to power generation benefits. The paper also summarizes the environmental mitigation options for large dams. If properly implemented, these mitigation measures can effectively prevent, minimize, or compensate for many (though not all) of a hydroelectric project’s negative impacts.Non etheless, the most effective environmental mitigation measure is good site selection, to ensure that the proposed dam will cause relatively little damage in the first place. The paper presents quantitative indicators (using data that are relatively easy to obtain) for rating and ranking proposed new hydroelectric projects in terms of their likely adverse environmental impacts. Projects with a small reservoir surface area (relative to power generation) tend to be most desirable from both an environmental and social standpoint, in part because they minimize natural habitat losses as well as resettlement needs.In general, the most environmentally benign hydroelectric dam sites are on upper tributaries, while the most problematic ones are on the large main stems of rivers. Power expansion planning should ensure that environmental criteria, of the type outlined in this paper, are given appropriate weight in hydroelectric project site selection. Many of the more problematic dam sites are best left undeveloped, because the environmental or related social impacts are likely to be unacceptably high. In those cases, other power generation technologies are likely to be more environmentally desirable.Conversely, hydroelectric dams at good sites (with relatively low adverse impacts) and with effective implementation of proper mitigation measures are likely to be more attractive from an environmental standpoint than the most likely power generation alternatives. vii Introduction 1. Large hydroelectric dams are among the most controversial of all types of development projects. They have been the focus of much criticism of the World Bank and other international financing agencies. The â€Å"large dams† debate is often highly polarized.Critics of large hydroelectric projects point to a wide range of negative environmental and related social impacts, from the destruction of unique biodiversity to the displacement of vulnerable human populations. Defenders of large dams n ote that they are often the economically least-cost source of electric power available, especially to large urban centers; they are a renewable electricity source; and most other power generation technologies also imply significant adverse environmental impacts. 2.Worldwide, many countries rely upon hydropower for a substantial portion of their electricity. In developing countries, rapid urbanization and continued population growth will ensure increased demand for electric power for decades to come, even with the most successful of demand management and energy efficiency measures. Electricity remains a key ingredient for improving the lives of millions of poor people throughout the developing world. Energy planners in many countries are likely to continue seeing hydroelectric dams as a promising, renewable source of electricity.Major recent international initiatives–including the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002), World Water Forum (Kyoto, 2003), Wo rld Commission on Dams (1997-2002), and the ongoing Dams and Development Project of the United Nations Environment Program–have reaffirmed the commitment of many governments and international agencies (including the World Bank) to hydropower development, but in a manner which fully reflects modern environmental concerns. 3. In this context, it is important to remember that all large hydroelectric dams are not alike.Large hydroelectric projects vary tremendously in the extent of their adverse environmental and related social impacts. (In this paper, we define large hydroelectric dams as those with 10 megawatts or more of installed generating capacity, to distinguish them from small or micro-dams which generate power on a smaller scale. ) For example, the 500–megawatt Pehuenche Hydroelectric Project in Chile flooded only about 400 hectares of land (with minimal damage to forest or wildlife resources) and has had no water quality problems.By contrast, the Brokopondo Dam i n Suriname inundated about 160,000 hectares of biologically valuable tropical rainforest and is known for serious water quality and aquatic weed problems, while providing relatively little electric generating capacity (only 30 megawatts). 4. We conducted a review of more than twenty completed hydroelectric dam projects in Latin America, along with several well-known projects from other regions. Our study found that some large dams are relatively benign, while others have caused substantial environmental and related social damage.This paper provides a methodology for easily comparing proposed hydroelectric project sites in terms of their expected adverse environmental impacts, relative to their power generation benefits. The technical criteria and quantitative indicators in this paper should be viewed as complementary to 1 2 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 16 the broader and often more process-oriented advice of other recent reports on dams, including the 2000 Dams and Development report of the World Commission on Dams.This paper’s recommendations are fully compatible with the World Bank’s Water Resources Sector Strategy, although this paper provides more technical detail regarding specific environmental impacts, mitigation options, and site selection criteria. Adverse Environmental Impacts of Hydropower Development 5. The range of adverse environmental and related social impacts that can result from hydroelectric dams is remarkably diverse. While some impacts occur only during construction, the most important impacts usually are due to the long-term existence and operation of the dam and reservoir.Other significant impacts can result from complementary civil works such as access roads, power transmission lines, and quarries and borrow pits. Table 1 summarizes the adverse environmental and social impacts associated with dams and reservoirs, along with the typical kinds of mitigation measures often proposed (and, less often, effective ly implemented). 6. Our analysis indicates that with properly implemented mitigation measures, many of the negative environmental and related social impacts of hydroelectric projects can be reduced to very acceptable levels.As outlined in Table 1, mitigation measures can effectively prevent, minimize, or compensate for most adverse impacts, but only if they are properly implemented. In our review of Latin American hydroprojects, we found wide variation in the extent to which environmental mitigation measures were planned, budgeted, and actually implemented. 7. Moreover, for some types of negative impacts, at some project sites, the available mitigation measures—even when properly implemented—are inherently unsatisfactory.Examples of adverse environmental impacts which occur at some hydroelectric projects and cannot be fully mitigated include (i) irreversible biodiversity loss, if critical natural habitats not occurring elsewhere are submerged (or left dry) by the dam; (ii) fish passage facilities frequently cannot restore the pre-dam ecological balance of a river, in terms of species composition or fish migrations; and (iii) some cultural property (including sacred sites) cannot be adequately salvaged prior to reservoir inundation. 8.Thus, because mitigation measures are often not fully implemented, and are sometimes inherently inadequate, the single most important environmental mitigation measure for a new hydroelectric project is good site selection, to ensure that the proposed dam is will be largely benign in the first place. In the following summary of typical adverse environmental impacts and corresponding mitigation options, it is important to keep in mind that all these types of impacts can be either avoided or minimized through good project site selection. 3 4Note: All of these impacts can be avoided or minimized by good dam site selection, the single most important environmental measure. Environmental Impacts Mitigation Options Impacts o f the Dam and Reservoir Flooding of Natural Habitats Some reservoirs permanently flood extensive natural habitats, with local and even global extinctions of animal and plant species. Very large hydroelectric reservoirs in the tropics are especially likely to cause species extinctions (although such losses are only infrequently documented due to the lack of scientific data).Particularly hard-hit are riverine forests and other riparian ecosystems, which naturally occur only along rivers and streams. From a biodiversity conservation standpoint, the terrestrial natural habitats lost to flooding are usually much more valuable than the aquatic habitats created by the reservoir. One occasional exception to this rule is that shallow reservoirs in dry zones can provide a permanent oasis, sometimes important for migratory waterfowl and other terrestrial and aquatic fauna.To offset the loss of natural habitats to reservoir flooding or other project components (such as borrow pits), one or more compensatory protected areas can be established and managed under the project. If an existing area is protected â€Å"on paper† only, a useful project option is to strengthen its onthe-ground protection and management. The area protected under the project should ideally be of comparable or greater size and ecological quality to the natural area lost to the project.Under the World Bank’s Natural Habitats Policy, hydroelectric and other projects should not be sited where they would cause the significant conversion or degradation of critical natural habitats that do not occur elsewhere (and, hence, cannot be adequately compensated). Loss of Terrestrial Wildlife The loss of terrestrial wildlife to drowning during reservoir filling is an inherent consequence of the flooding of terrestrial natural habitats, although often treated as a separate impact. Although they may be useful for public relations purposes, wildlife rescue efforts rarely succeed in restoring wild populati ons.Instead of drowning, the captured and relocated animals typically starve, are killed by competitors or predators, or fail to reproduce successfully, due to the limited carrying capacity of their new habitats. Wildlife rescue is most likely to be justified on conservation grounds if (a) the species rescued are globally threatened with extinction and (b) the relocation habitat is ecologically suitable and effectively protected. However, the money spent on rescue would usually do much more for wildlife conservation if it were invested in compensatory protected areas.The most effective way to minimize wildlife mortality in hydroelectric projects is to choose dam sites which minimize the wildlife habitat flooded. LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No 16 Table 1. Hydroelectric Projects: Adverse Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Options Environmental Impacts Mitigation Options Involuntary Displacement Involuntary displacement of people is often the main adverse social impact of hydroelectric projects. It can also have important environmental implications, such as with the conversion of natural habitats to accommodate resettled rural populations.For physical displacement, the main mitigation measure is the resettlement of displaced populations, including new housing, replacement lands, and other material assistance, as needed. Success usually requires consultation and participatory decisionmaking by both the resettled and host populations (mandatory for World Bank–supported resettlement). Effective resettlement of vulnerable ethnic minorities is particularly challenging because some of these people are highly vulnerable to adverse social changes.Accordingly, the World Bank’s Involuntary Resettlement and Indigenous Peoples policies afford special consideration to these populations, specifying that, among other requirements, all viable alternative project designs should be explored before considering physical displacement for these groups. Fo r people who are not physically displaced but suffer an economic loss of livelihoods (based on fisheries, agricultural or grazing lands, river-edge clay for brick and tile production, or other resources), mitigation measures should involve the provision of replacement resources, new job training, or other income restoration assistance, as needed.Deterioration of Water Quality The damming of rivers can cause serious water quality deterioration, due to the reduced oxygenation and dilution of pollutants by relatively stagnant reservoirs (compared to fast-flowing rivers), flooding of biomass (especially forests) and resulting underwater decay, and/or reservoir stratification (where deeper lake waters lack oxygen).Water pollution control measures (such as sewage treatment plants or enforcement of industrial regulations) may be needed to improve reservoir water quality. Where poor water quality would result from the decay of flooded biomass, selective forest clearing within the impoundmen t area should be completed before reservoir filling. Downriver Hydrological Changes These adverse impacts can be minimized through careful management of water releases.Objectives to consider in optimizing water releases from the turbines and spillways include adequate downriver water supply for riparian ecosystems, reservoir and downriver fish survival, reservoir and downriver water quality, aquatic weed and disease vector control, irrigation and other human uses of water, downriver flood protection, recreation (such as whitewater boating), and, of course, power generation. From an ecological standpoint, the ideal water release pattern would usually closely mimic the natural flooding regime (although this may not be feasible for densely settled floodplains where flood protection is a high priority).Dams that generate baseload electricity are typically more capable of replicating near-natural downriver flows than those that produce peaking power (where daily water releases may fluctu ate sharply, often to the detriment of aquatic organisms that are adapted to less frequent flow changes). Environmental management plans for hydroelectric projects should specify environmental water releases, including for dams owned or operated by the private sector. Good Dams and Bad Dams 5Major downriver hydrological changes can destroy riparian ecosystems dependent on periodic natural flooding, exacerbate water pollution during lowflow periods, and increase saltwater intrusion near river mouths. Reduced sediment and nutrient loads downriver of dams can increase river-edge and coastal erosion and damage the biological and economic productivity of rivers and estuaries. Induced desiccation of rivers below dams (when the water is diverted to another portion of the river, or to a different river) kills fish and other fauna and flora dependent on the river; it can also damage agriculture and human water supplies.Mitigation Options Water-Related Diseases Some infectious diseases can sp read around hydroelectric reservoirs, particularly in warm climates and densely populated areas. Some diseases (such as malaria and schistosomiasis) are borne by water-dependent disease vectors (mosquitoes and aquatic snails); others (such as dysentery, cholera, and hepatitis A) are spread by contaminated water, which frequently becomes worse in stagnant reservoirs than it was in fast-flowing rivers.Corresponding public health measures should include preventive measures (such as awareness campaigns and window screens), monitoring of vectors and disease outbreaks, vector control, and clinical treatment of disease cases, as needed. Control of floating aquatic weeds (see below) near populated areas can reduce mosquito-borne disease risks. Fish and Other Aquatic Life Hydroelectric projects often have major effects on fish and other aquatic life. Reservoirs positively affect certain fish species (and fisheries) by ncreasing the area of available aquatic habitat. However, the net impacts are often negative because (a) the dam blocks upriver fish migrations, while downriver passage through turbines or over spillways is often unsuccessful; (b) many riveradapted fish and other aquatic species cannot survive in artificial lakes; (c) changes in downriver flow patterns adversely affect many species, and (d) water quality deterioration in or below reservoirs (usually low oxygen levels; sometimes gas super-saturation) kills fish and damages aquatic habitats.Freshwater molluscs, crustaceans, and other benthic organisms are even more sensitive to these changes than most fish species, due to their limited mobility. Management of water releases may be needed for the survival of certain fish species, in and below the reservoir. Fish passage facilities (fish ladders, elevators, or trap-and-truck operations) are intended to help migratory fish move upriver past a dam; they are usually of limited effectiveness for various reasons (including the difficulty of ensuring safe downriver passage for many adults and fry).Fish hatcheries can be useful for maintaining populations of native species which can survive but not successfully reproduce within the reservoir. They are also often used for stocking the reservoir with economically desired species, although introducing non-native fish is often devastating to native species and not ecologically desirable. Fishing regulation is often essential to maintain viable populations of commercially valuable species, especially in the waters immediately below a dam where migratory fish species concentrate in high numbers and are unnaturally easy to catch.Floating Aquatic Vegetation Floating aquatic vegetation can rapidly proliferate in eutrophic reservoirs, causing problems such as (a) degraded habitat for most species of fish and other aquatic life, (b) improved breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other nuisance species and disease vectors, (c) impeded navigation and swimming, (d) clogging of electro-mechanical equipment at dams, and (e) increased water loss from some reservoirs. Pollution control and pre-impoundment selective forest clearing will make reservoirs less conducive to aquatic weed growth.Physical removal or containment of floating aquatic weeds is effective but imposes a high and recurrent expense for large reservoirs. Where compatible with other objectives (power generation, fish survival, etc. ), occasional drawdown of reservoir water levels may be used to kill aquatic weeds. Chemical poisoning of weeds or related insect pests requires much environmental caution and is usually best avoided. LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No 16 Environmental Impacts (table continues on following page) 6 Table 1.Hydroelectric Projects: Adverse Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Options (continued) Environmental Impacts Mitigation Options Loss of Cultural Property Cultural property, including archaeological, historical, paleontological, and religious sites and objects, can be inundated by reser voirs or destroyed by associated quarries, borrow pits, roads, or other works. Structures and objects of cultural interest should undergo salvage wherever feasible through scientific inventory, careful physical relocation, and documentation and storage in museums or other appropriate facilities.However, it is often not possible to replace the loss of, or damage to, unique or sacred sites which may have great religious or ceremonial significance to indigenous or other local people. Reservoir Sedimentation Over time, live storage and power generation are reduced by reservoir sedimentation, such that much of some projects’ hydroelectric energy might not be renewable over the long term. If effectively implemented, watershed management can minimize sedimentation and extend a reservoir’s useful physical life, through the control of road construction, mining, agriculture, and other land use in the upper catchment area.Protected areas are sometimes established in upper catchme nts to reduce sediment flows into reservoirs, as with the Fortuna Dam in Panama and the proposed Rio Amoya (Colombia) and Nam Theun II (Laos) projects. Aside from watershed management, other sediment management techniques for hydroelectric reservoirs may at times be physically and economically feasible; they include, among others, upstream check structures, protecting dam outlets, reservoir flushing, mechanical removal, and increasing the dam’s height.Greenhouse Gases Greenhouse gas releases from reservoirs can be reduced by a thorough salvage of commercial timber and fuelwood, although frequently this does not happen because of (a) high extraction and transportation costs, (b) marketing constraints, or (c) political and economic pressures not to delay reservoir filling. The surest way to minimize greenhouse gas releases from reservoirs is to choose dam sites that minimize the flooding of land in general, and forests in particular. table continues on following page) Good Dams and Bad Dams 7 Greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide and methane) are released into the atmosphere from reservoirs that flood forests and other biomass, either slowly (as flooded organic matter decomposes) or rapidly (if the forest is cut and burned before reservoir filling). Greenhouse gases are widely considered to be the main cause of human-induced global climate change. Many hydroelectric reservoirs flood relatively little forest or other biomass.Moreover, most hydroprojects generate sufficient electricity to more than offset the greenhouse gases which would otherwise have been produced by burning fossil fuels (natural gas, fuel oil, or coal) in power plants. However, some projects which flood extensive forest areas, such as the Balbina Dam in Amazonian Brazil, appear to emit greenhouse gases in greater amounts than would be produced by burning natural gas for many years of comparable electricity generation. Mitigation Options Impacts of Complementary Civil Works Access RoadsNew acc ess roads to hydroelectric dams can induce major land use changes— particularly deforestation—with resulting loss of biodiversity, accelerated erosion, and other environmental problems. In some projects (such as Arun II in Nepal), the environmental impacts of access roads can greatly exceed those of the reservoir. The siting of any new access roads should be in the environmentally and socially least damaging corridors. Forests and other environmentally sensitive areas along the chosen road corridor should receive legal and on-the-ground protection.Road engineering should ensure proper drainage, to protect waterways and minimize erosion. Environmental rules for contractors (including penalties for noncompliance) should cover construction camp siting, gravel extraction, waste disposal, avoiding water pollution, worker behavior (such as no hunting), and other construction practices. See Ledec and Posas (2003) for details. Power Transmission Lines Power transmission line r ights-of-way often reduce and fragment forests; indirectly, they occasionally facilitate further deforestation by improving physical access.Large birds are sometimes killed in collisions with power lines, or by electrocution. Power lines can also be aesthetically objectionable. Power lines should be sited to minimize these concerns and built using good environmental practices (as with roads). In areas with concentrations of vulnerable bird species, the top (grounding) wire should be made more visible with plastic devices. Electrocution (mainly of large birds of prey) should be avoided through bird-friendly tower design and proper spacing of conducting wires.Quarries and Borrow Pits Quarries and borrow pits are used to provide material for construction of the dam and complementary works. They can considerably increase the area of natural habitats or agricultural lands that are lost to a hydroelectric project. To the greatest extent feasible, quarries and borrow pits should be sited w ithin the future inundation zone. Where this is not feasible, the pits should be rehabilitated after use, ideally for conservation purposes such as wetland habitats. Impacts of Induced DevelopmentAssociated Development Projects Hydroelectric dams often make possible new development projects with major environmental impacts, including irrigation, urban expansion, and industrial facilities (due to new water supplies). New development projects should be planned to minimize adverse environmental and social impacts. Environmental impact assessment studies should be carried out in the early stages of project planning; the resulting environmental mitigation plans should be fully implemented. Additional DamsThe construction of the first dam on a river can make the subsequent construction of additional dams more economical, because flow regulation by the upriver dam can enhance power generation at the downriver dam(s). The environmental impact assessment study for the first dam on any river should include a cumulative environmental assessment of the likely impacts of proposed additional dams on the same river system. Implementation of mitigation measures for cumulative (rather than dam-specific) impacts should be completed or well underway prior to construction of the second dam on the river. LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No 16Environmental Impacts 8 Table 1. Hydroelectric Projects: Adverse Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Options (continued) Key Indicators of Likely Environmental Impacts 9. Before a dam site is chosen (with a project-specific environmental impact assessment), sector-level environmental analysis can rank potential sites according to their degree of environmental desirability. A sectoral environmental assessment (SEA) should be carried out prior to making major power sector planning decisions, especially in the comparison of hydroelectric and other power generation (and demand management) alternatives.However, even without a detailed SEA , it is possible to carry out a simple environmental and ranking of different hydropower sites using basic, often readily available technical data. There exist various quantitative, easily calculated indicators that can be used to estimate the extent of adverse environmental impacts for any proposed hydroelectric project. 10. This paper presents 13 quantitative, easily calculated indicators that we consider especially useful for hydroproject site selection from an environmental standpoint. These indicators have high predictive value for likely adverse environmental (and related social) impacts.The first nine indicators (A–I) use information that is normally easy to obtain from basic dam planning data, even without a separate environmental study. The other four indicators (J–M) are also very important in the environmental comparison of alternative dam sites, but involve data that may require further environmental (or resettlement) study to obtain. Indicator A (hectares of land inundated) is perhaps the single most useful one in predicting the degree of environmental damage, because this indicator is positively correlated with many of the others.From a social standpoint, the number of people requiring resettlement (Indicator J) is an especially important. A. Reservoir Surface Area 11. The area flooded by the reservoir is a strong proxy variable for many environmental and social impacts (Goodland, 1997). A large reservoir area implies the loss of much natural habitat and wildlife and/or the displacement of many people. Very large reservoirs are typically in the lowlands (often with tropical disease and aquatic weed problems) and usually impound larger rivers (with more fish and other aquatic species at risk).A very useful measure of environmental costs relative to economic benefits is the ratio of inundated hectares per megawatt (ha/MW) of electricity; it varies by four orders of magnitude for large power projects (see Table 2). The global average f or all large hydroelectric dams constructed to date (not just those in Table 2) is about 60 ha/MW (J. Goldemberg, pers. comm. ); it would be environmentally highly desirable for this average to be much reduced in future hydroprojects. B. Water Retention Time in Reservoir 12.Mean water retention time during normal operation (the shorter, the better) is very useful in estimating the extent to which reservoirs will have long-term water quality problems. This figure (number of days) is calculated as a function of reservoir volume (cubic meters) and mean river flow (cubic liters per second). 9 10 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 16 C. Biomass Flooded 13. Biomass flooded is calculated in tons per hectare based on the percent cover of different vegetation types in the reservoir area.For good reservoir water quality, dams should minimize flooding of forests (which have high biomass content). Flooding native forests also threatens biodiversity and releases greenhouse gases. D. L ength of River Impounded 14. To conserve aquatic and riparian biodiversity (including riverine forests), dam sites should minimize the length (kilometers) of river (main stem plus tributaries) impounded by the reservoir (measured during high flow periods). E. Length of River Left Dry 15. This measures the kilometers of river left dry (with less than 50 percent of dry season mean flow) below the dam, due to water diversion.The length of dried-up river bed (before the next important downstream tributary) should be minimized, due to the loss of fish and other aquatic life, damage to riparian ecosystems, and disruption of human water supplies, agriculture, and/or fishing. F. Number of Downriver Tributaries 16. The more (major, undammed) tributaries downriver of the dam site, the better, in terms of maintaining accessible habitat for migratory fish, the natural flooding regime for riverine ecosystems, and nutrient or sediment inputs needed for the high biological productivity of estuarie s. G. Likelihood of Reservoir Stratification 7. Stratification in a reservoir occurs when the lake’s upper zone (epilimnion) is thermally divided from the deeper zone (hypolimnion); the latter becomes stagnant and lacking in dissolved oxygen (anaerobic), thereby unsuitable for most aquatic life. A rapid estimate of stratification tendencies in a reservoir can be obtained with the Densimetric Froude Number (F). F can be calculated as: F = 320(L/D)(Q/V), where L = length of the reservoir (meters), D = mean reservoir depth (meters) (for which dam height can be a proxy), Q = mean water inflow (cubic meters per second), and V = eservoir volume (cubic meters). If F is less than 1, some stratification is expected, the severity of which increases with a smaller F. When F is greater than 1, stratification is not likely. H. Useful Reservoir Life 18. Useful reservoir life is the expected number of years before a reservoir’s dead storage is completely filled, so that further sedim entation reduces the live storage and curtails power generation. Dead storage comprises all reservoir water beneath the level of the intakes for the dam’s turbines; all of the water at or above this intake level is part of the live storage.Useful reservoir life is a function of dead storage and river-borne sediment loads. Useful reservoir life is a good indicator of the relative sustainability of electric power generation; it varies from less than ten years before dead storage is filled (such as the Paute Dam in Ecuador) to potentially thousands of years. In general, reservoirs with the longest useful life are relatively deep and situated on rivers with low sediment loads. Maintaining low sediment loads over time typically requires good watershed management. Good Dams and Bad Dams 11 I. Access Roads through Forests 19.Where the risks of induced deforestation are high, project siting should minimize the kilometers of required new or upgraded access roads passing through or nea r natural forests. J. Persons Requiring Resettlement 20. The number of people physically displaced by hydroelectric projects ranges from zero (e. g. Pehuenche, Chile) to over 50,000 in Latin America (e. g. Yacyreta, Argentina-Paraguay) and well over 1 million in Asia (Three Gorges, China). Dam siting should generally seek to minimize the number of individuals or households requiring resettlement from lands affected by the reservoir and complementary civil works.A useful measure for relating resettlement costs to hydropower benefits is the ratio of people displaced per megawatt (Table 2). Because of their usually greater vulnerability to social disruption, it is especially important to minimize the number of indigenous people with traditional land-based models of production who would require resettlement. K. Critical Natural Habitats Affected 21. It is important to know the number of sites and hectares of critical natural habitats that would be lost to inundation, borrow pits, or oth er project components.Critical natural habitats include existing and officially proposed protected areas, as well as unprotected areas of known high importance for biodiversity conservation. To comply with the World Bank’s Natural Habitats Policy, hydroelectric projects should not cause any significant loss or degradation of critical natural habitats. On the other hand, some hydroelectric projects imply very important conservation opportunities by providing a strong justification (sediment reduction) and financial resources needed for protecting natural habitats in upper catchment areas.L. Fish Species Diversity and Endemism 22. Fish species diversity is the number of species known from the project area, including the dam and reservoir site, as well as the downstream zone of project influence. Fish species endemism is the number of native species known only from the project area, or the river system where the project is located, and nowhere else on Earth. Dams are environment ally less objectionable if they affect rivers with a naturally low diversity and endemism of native fish species.In general, large, lowland rivers in warm (tropical or subtropical) climates have a high diversity of native fish and other aquatic organisms, while small rivers in cold (tropical highland or temperate) climates have relatively low diversity. Large, lowland rivers are also more likely to have significant seasonal fish migrations, which are effectively blocked by most dams. However, highland rivers and streams often have relatively high endemism in their fish fauna, especially if they are isolated from other rivers by waterfalls or other natural barriers.River segments with threatened fish species found nowhere else should be classified as critical natural habitats and, ideally, would receive permanent protection from dams or other potentially damaging civil works. However, dams and reservoirs in upper tributary rivers and streams need not threaten the survival of any ende mic fish (or mollusks, or other aquatic life) if they affect only an insignificant portion of the river area used by these species (see Indicators D and E); they should also be sited so as not to block important fish migrations. M. Cultural Property Affected 23.An indication of the cultural significance of the area to be inundated (or otherwise affected by the project) is the number (by type) of cultural (archaeological, historical, paleontological, or religious) objects or sites. It is important to note whether each type of cultural property at the project site is salvageable (totally, partially, or not at all). 12 LCR Sustainable Development Working Paper No. 16 Table 2. Land Area Flooded and People Displaced in Large Hydropower Projects Project (country) Arun II (Nepal) Pehuenche (Chile) Pangue (Chile) Guavio (Colombia) Tehri (India) Ghazi Barotha (Pakistan)Nam Theun-Hinboun (Laos) Ertan (China) Fortuna (Panama) Chixoy (Guatemala) Grand Coulee (United States) Three Gorges (China) Tarbela (Pakistan) Salvajina (Colombia) Zimapan (Mexico) Itaipu (Brazil/Paraguay) Victoria (Sri Lanka) Kararao/Belo Monte (Brazil) Aguamilpa (Mexico) Betania (Colombia) Urra I (Colombia) Mangla (Pakistan) Bakun (Malaysia) Ataturk (Turkey) El Cajon (Honduras) Ilha Solteira (Brazil) Guri Complex (Venezuela) Salto Grande (Argentina/Uruguay) Nam Theun II (Laos) Arenal (Costa Rica) Yacyreta (Argentina/Paraguay) Tucurui (Brazil) Narmada Sagar (India) Porto Primavera (Brazil)Churchill Falls (Canada) Khao Laem (Thailand) Kedung Ombo (Indonesia) Kainji (Nigeria) Pak Mun (Thailand) Cabora Bassa (Mozambique) Aswan High (Egypt) Nam Ngum (Laos) Sobradinho (Brazil) Kariba (Zambia/Zimbabwe) Balbina (Brazil) Akosombo (Ghana) Bayano (Panama) Kompienga (Burkina Faso) Brokopondo (Suriname) Installed capacity (MW) 402 500 450 1,000 2,400 1,450 210 3,300 300 300 6,494 18,200 3,478 270 280 12,600 210 8,381 960 510 340 1,000 2,400 2,400 300 3,200 10,300 1,890 1,086 157 3,100 3,980 1,000 1,815 5,225 300 2 9 760 34 2,075 2,100 150 1,050 1,260 250 833 30 14 30 Reservoir rea (hectares) 43 400 500 1,530 4,200 2,640 630 10,100 1,050 1,400 33,306 110,000 24,280 2,030 2,300 135,000 2,270 116,000 13,000 7,370 7,400 25,300 70,000 81,700 11,200 125,700 426,000 78,300 45,000 7,000 165,000 243,000 90,820 225,000 665,000 38,800 4,600 126,000 6,000 380,000 400,000 37,000 415,000 510,000 236,000 848,200 35,000 20,000 160,000 People displaced 775 0 50 4,959 100,000 899 0 30,000 446 3,445 10,000 >1,300,000 96,000 3,272 2,800 59,000 45,000 n. a. 1,000 544 6,200 90,000 9,000 55,000 4,000 6,150 1,500 n. a. 5,700 2,500 50,000 30,000 80,500 15,000 0 10,800 29,000 50,000 4,945